The use of pre-made forms for creating engraved prints has a long history. Art researchers believe that although the idea itself was born in ancient times, many types of prints (graphics made through impressions) received a powerful impetus for their development after the invention of printing. The ability to create images from matrices opens up wide opportunities for experimentation. This is the main reason for the continuing interest of modern artists in etching, monotype, linocut, and other types of prints.
Intaglio Printing
The key feature of this type of printing is the specific configuration of the form elements: the whitespace surface is located below the printing surface and does not come into contact with the paper.
Linocut
The name "linocut" already hints at the material used to make the impressions. It is linoleum (ordinary or special). Linocut, like etching, combines the "permanence" of the images created on the surface of the impression and the ability to reproduce them a certain number of times. The differences in techniques are manifested during the work with the surface of the future matrix. The resistance of linoleum is an order of magnitude lower than that of metal, so this material is more flexible for processing. A set of chisels of various shapes (radial, flat, box-shaped, corner), a roller, and paints are used to create the design. The softness of the material allows for quickly creating drawings of any complexity. It is permissible to use gouache, acrylic, typographic, and textile paints. The ink is applied to the surface of the matrix using a roller. After that, it is attached to the paper and placed under a press or on a special stand. The channels cut out by the chisels will not transfer ink to the surface of the sheet. After detaching the linoleum, the paper is additionally dried.
Linocut as a type of intaglio printing appeared in the early 20th century. Linoleum was first used by the artists of the German group "Die Brücke" as early as 1905 to produce prints. This technique was actively used by such artists as P. Picasso, F. Blei, K. Kortes, A. Botelho, and others.
Woodcut
Woodcut is a type of printing in which the form is made from a wooden block. Using knives, the master manually cuts out each line and stroke of the image, which become elements of the whitespace surface. There are two types of wood engraving: longitudinal and end-grain woodcut. Longitudinal engraving is performed on boards made by sawing wood along the fibers. End-grain woodcut is performed by carving on the surface made by sawing the trunk of a tree in a transverse direction.
In traditional woodcut, artists, engravers, and printers participate in the creation process. First, the master creates a sketch of the future print and its mirrored reflection for accuracy control of transferring all the details of the drawing. Based on the created sketch, the engraver reproduces the image on the wood using knives. The printer completes the work on the woodcut. It is his ability to correctly select pigments that determines the gamma of shades of the finished print.
In Europe, woodcut appeared in the 15th century thanks to the experiments of M. Schopenhauer and A. Dürer. This type of printing was most often used to illustrate books with large print runs. Until the 18th century, the technique of longitudinal woodcut was used, and only after Thomas Bewick's invention of the technique of processing end-grain surfaces, end-grain woodcut appeared.
Relief Printing
A type of printing in which the printing elements of the image are located below the whitespace. Ink is trapped in the resulting recesses, which, when dry, forms raised elements.
Etching
Etching is a type of relief printing that is done using a chemically active substance on metal plates. The name comes from the French phrase "eau forte" (nitric acid), which denotes the active substance used for etching metal. Before the invention of this technique, images were applied to the working surface using knives. The production of an etching is carried out in several stages. First, a resistant lacquer that is impervious to acid is applied to a metal plate (copper or zinc). Using a steel needle, images are scratched on the surface. The depth of the channels should reach the metal layer. After that, the plate is immersed in acid, where the active substance deepens the elements applied to the surface. Then the lacquer is removed, and the metal plate is used to create prints on paper. During printing, ink from the etched grooves is transferred to the sheet. The sharpness and saturation of the lines on the surface of the paper after printing depend on the depth and width of the channels. Most often, artists perform etching in several stages, creating a rich tonal range. This is how you can describe the technique of etching, which is also called the technique of relief printing.
The history of this type of engraving dates back about five hundred years. The first known works created in the technique of etching belong to A. Dürer and D. Hopfer. In the 17th-18th centuries, many famous masters in Europe, such as G. Callot, Rembrandt, H. Segers, B. Castiglione, J. Ribera, and others, actively engaged in the development of this direction. Over time, the technique was repeatedly improved, seeking substitutes for materials that were not very convenient. For example, in the 19th century, zinc began to be used in addition to copper due to its softness, and in the 20th century, special primer mixtures began to be used instead of varnish.
Aquatint
This printing method is a type of etching. Metal is etched with "strong water" through a layer of asphalt or rosin powder. This allows tonality to be added to images. Usually, aquatint is used in combination with other types of etching to create complex images, but there are cases of its "pure" use. For example, some sheets in Francisco Goya's "Caprichos" series.
Originally, aquatint was created exclusively for the reproduction of images using watercolor and ink. Its invention is attributed to J. B. Le Prince in the 18th century. In the 19th century, aquatint was used in England to create entire albums of engravings. At the same time, a colored variety of this type of etching appeared.
Mezzotint
Mezzotint differs from other types of etching in its special technique for creating elements of the image. Instead of lines and strokes, the artist smooths out areas of a grainy metal plate. The black velvety background acquires an extraordinary depth, and the image itself has smooth transitions from light to shadow. The graininess of the metal sheet provides an open etching method without using rosin. The light areas of the drawing are obtained by polishing: the higher the polish, the lighter the tone will be. The technique is attributed to the German master L. Siegen, who began using a rocker to process a copper plate in the mid-17th century. Mezzotint became widespread in England in the 18th-19th centuries. It was used by such famous masters as J. R. Smith, J. Walker, and W. Green.
Flat printing
In this type of printing, both the blank and printing elements are located in the same plane. The lines of the image arise from the difference in the physical and chemical properties of different layers.
Monotype
Monotype is a type of printmaking. Unlike etching, it does not necessarily involve the use of only metal plates and allows for the use of glass, ceramics, plastic, and even paper. In the technique of monotype, the image is reproduced anew each time. There are no lines on the surface of the plate, and all details of the future picture are drawn by hand. Monotype allows for the use of watercolor, oil, and typographic inks.
Technology of creating this type of printed graphics includes several stages. First, the future image is drawn on a working surface using paint. Object contours can be made by pre-drawing with dark paint (brush or stick), or by leaving unpainted strips on the paper. Then a sheet of paper is attached to the plate and carefully rolled out with a roller. It should be damp, but not wet. Both surfaces should not fit tightly against each other, otherwise the colors will mix, and the intended shapes will not be printed on the image.
The technique of monotype was first used by the famous engraver J. Castiglione in the mid-17th century. It was used by artists such as W. Blake, E. Degas, C. Pissarro, P. Gauguin, A. Matisse, M. Vrubel, M. Chagall, and others. In the early 21st century, chemist Livshits and mathematician Skvortsov invented fractal monotype, aimed at obtaining fractals.
Lithography
This type of printed graphics involves the use of a flat stone form. Ink is transferred through special manipulations with the material and the selection of specific pigments. First, a drawing is applied to the surface with fatty ink or a special fatty pencil. Then the surface is etched with acid, which only affects the bare areas of the stone. After removing the ink, typographic ink is applied to the form and an imprint is created on paper.
Lithography was invented by A. Senefelder in the late 18th century. The relative simplicity of processing the printing form brought this type of flat printing enormous popularity in the 19th century. It was used equally successfully for reproducing other paintings and for black and white prints. Among the famous fans of lithographic printing are F. Goya, P. Bonington, T. Gericault, and O. Raffet.
Chromolithography
Unlike ordinary lithography, this printing method allowed for color prints: a separate stamp was created for each color (on zinc plates and stones). Sometimes up to thirty forms were used for the drawing, which formed a multi-layered image when executed in the entire cycle. The patent for the method of chromolithography was obtained in 1837 by the French artist E. Godfroy, although it is known that the technology itself existed earlier. Its peak of popularity was in the 19th century. Chromolithography was used to create reduced copies of paintings by artists for printed editions.
Stencil printing
The printing form resembles a stencil, through the cells of which paint is pressed with a squeegee.
Silkscreen printing
Silkscreen printing uses special monofilament mesh (made of polyester, nylon, and metal) with a frequency of 4 to 400 threads per square centimeter. A stencil is cut from the material, which is then fixed onto a sheet of paper and covered with special ink and pressed with a squeegee. The special ink composition used in silkscreen printing allows for creating different smooth tones of any brightness. The ink does not bleed, even if the canvas is in a vertical position. A separate stencil is made for each color. Silkscreen printing is one of the most high-tech printing methods and requires a lot of experience. In the first half of the 20th century, it was mainly used in commercial projects, but since the 1950s, stencil printing has become one of the most popular methods of visual art. By using silkscreen printing, artists could create collages and reproduce them in unlimited quantities, practically embodying the philosophical ideas of pop art. E. Warhol, M. Duchamp, R. Hamilton, and R. Lichtenstein worked in this direction.
Printing in modern Ukrainian art
Practically all types of printmaking are used in various fields of activity. For example, besides fine art, the technique of linocut is in demand in design, psychotherapy, and in creating illustrations and posters. Today, various events dedicated to developing children's artistic talents cannot do without it.
Due to its technical simplicity, monotype is most often chosen for conducting various creative events and workshops. In Ukraine, professional artists actively use this type of printmaking, such as Ilya Ugnivenko, Irina Yashan, Katerina Svirgunenko, and others.
The technique of etching is currently mainly used by professional artists. The cost of engravings by renowned masters is slightly lower than that of ordinary paintings. The most famous etching of modern times is the 95th copy of the "Battle of the Gladiators" from a print run of 100 copies. It was purchased for $6,250 at a Christie's auction in 2018.
But perhaps the most famous and popular type of printing in the creative community is stencil printing. There are several reasons for such success. Firstly, it became popular at a time when views on classical art were seriously criticized. The new type of artist strives to create concepts and create something new by rethinking the old. Secondly, the execution technique of silkscreen printing involved the use of modern technologies and materials, the application of which also had enormous symbolic value for the creative community of the Postmodern era. And thirdly, some of the most valuable works of our time were created with the help of tirage printing. For example, Andy Warhol's portrait of Marilyn Monroe was sold at a Christie's auction for $36 million.
KyivGallery art critic